Overview of leprosy, including the diagnosis and current available treatments
Abstract
The disease Hansen's is another name for leprosy. It is a communicable disease that can be treated and is still widespread in the majority of the world's nations. Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis are the most common causes of this chronic granulomatous infection, which mostly affects the skin and peripheral nerves.Leprosy has long been known as "the death before death" because of the immense social stigma and rejection that victims have endured from their families, communities, and even medical professionals in addition to the physical effects of the condition. Armauer Hansen, who discovered Mycobacterium leprae, stated that "there is hardly anything on earth, or between it and heaven, that has not been regarded as the cause of leprosy." "And this is but natural since the less one knows, the more actively does his imagination work"MDT has been the main weapon in the fight against leprosy since its inception in 1981, and by 2005, India had a prevalence of less than 1/10000. In India's fight against leprosy, this was a huge victory. Affected individuals numbered 0.69/10000 by the end of 2010.The pathogenesis, aetiology, treatment, diagnosis, and risk factors for leprosy are covered in this review article.
Keywords:
Leprosy, Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathogenesis, Risk factors, Diagnosis, Treatments
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References
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31. Rook GAW, Hamelmann E, Rosa Brunet L. Mycobacteria and allergies. Immunobiology. 2007;212(6):461–73.
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37. Brennan PJ. Skin test development in leprosy: progress with first-generation skin test antigens, and an approach to the second generation. Lepr Rev. 2000 Dec;71 Suppl:S50-4.
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41. Kaplan BYG, Laal S, Sheftel G, Nusrat A, Nath I, Mathur NK, et al. THE NATURE AND KINETICS OF A DELAYED IMMUNE RESPONSE TO PURIFIED PROTEIN DERIVATIVE OF TUBERCULIN IN THE SKIN OF LEPROMATOUS LEPROSY PATIENTS Leprosy is a chronic granulomatous disease of man caused by the intracellular from single paucibacillary lesions . 1988;168(November).
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45. Ulrich M, Smith PG, Sampson C, Zuniga M, Centeno M, Garcia V, et al. IgM antibodies to native phenolic glycolipid-I in contacts of leprosy patients in Venezuela: epidemiological observations and a prospective study of the risk of leprosy. Int J Lepr other Mycobact Dis Off organ Int Lepr Assoc. 1991 Sep;59(3):405–15.
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47. Butlin CR, Soares D, Neupane KD, Failbus SS, Roche PW. IgM anti-phenolic glycolipid-I antibody measurements from skin-smear sites: correlation with venous antibody levels and the bacterial index. Int J Lepr other Mycobact Dis Off organ Int Lepr Assoc. 1997 Dec;65(4):465–8.
48. Aseffa A, Brennan P, Dockrell H, Gillis T, Hussain R, Oskam L, et al. Report on the first meeting of the IDEAL (Initiative for Diagnostic and Epidemiological Assays for Leprosy) consortium held at Armauer Hansen Research Institute, ALERT, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on 24-27 October 2004. Lepr Rev. 2005 Jun;76(2):147–59.
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54. Narang T, Arshdeep, Dogra S. Minocycline in leprosy patients with recent onset clinical nerve function impairment. Dermatol Ther. 2017;30(1):1–4.
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56. Mungroo MR, Khan NA, Siddiqui R. Mycobacterium leprae: Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment options. Microb Pathog [Internet]. 2020;149(September):104475. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104475
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2. Mohammad Hossein Azizi MD•1 MBM. A History of Leprosy in Iran during the 19th and 20th Centuries Mohammad. 2011;14(6):425–30.
3. Jopling WH, McDougall AC. The disease. In: Handbook of Leprosy. 5th ed. New Delhi: CBS Publications; 1996. p. l0-49. 1996;1996.
4. Pandya SS. Historical background. In: Kar HK, Kumar B, editors. IAL textbook of leprosy. New Delhi: Jaypee; 2008. p. 1-18. 2008;2008.
5. Lienhardt C, Fine PEM. What is the current epideiniological situation? 1994;
6. Bhat RM, Prakash C. Leprosy: An overview of pathophysiology. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis. 2012;2012.
7. Dogra S, Narang T, Kumar B. Leprosy - Evolution of the path to eradication. Indian J Med Res. 2013;137(1):15–35.
8. Organization WH. Global leprosy situation 2012.
9. Shetty VP. Challenges facing the control of leprosy in the Indian context. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2010;39(1):1–3.
10. Joshi PL. National scenario, national leprosy eradication programme (NLEP) and new paradigms. In: Kar HK, Kumar B, editors. IAL text book of leprosy. 1st ed. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers; 2010. p. 35-43. 2010;2010.
11. Singal A, Sonthalia S. Leprosy in post-elimination era in India: difficult journey ahead. Indian J Dermatol. 2013 Nov;58(6):443–6.
12. Kumar B. World leprosy day 2015: Renewing commitment for a leprosy free world! Indian J Med Res Suppl. 2015;141(JAN 2015):1–4.
13. Hegde S, Shenoy M, Pinto M, Amin V. Leprosy: Chronicles of a disabling disease. Arch Med Heal Sci. 2015;3(2):346.
14. Global leprosy situation, 2012. Relev Epidemiol Hebd. 2012 Aug;87(34):317–28.
15. Global leprosy situation, 2010. Relev Epidemiol Hebd. 2010 Aug;85(35):337–48.
16. Robbins G, Mushrif Tripathy V, Misra VN, Mohanty RK, Shinde VS, Gray KM, et al. Ancient skeletal evidence for leprosy in India (2000 B.C.). PLoS One. 2009;4(5):1–8.
17. Valverde CR, Canfield D, Tarara R, Esteves MI, Gormus BJ. Spontaneous leprosy in a wild-caught cynomolgus macaque. Int J Lepr other Mycobact Dis Off organ Int Lepr Assoc. 1998 Jun;66(2):140–8.
18. Truman R. Leprosy in wild armadillos. Lepr Rev. 2005 Sep;76(3):198–208.
19. Scollard DM, Adams LB, Gillis TP, Krahenbuhl JL, Truman RW, Williams DL. The continuing challenges of leprosy. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006;19(2):338–81.
20. Scollard DM. The biology of nerve injury in leprosy. Lepr Rev. 2008;79(3):242–53.
21. Bhushan kumar, Sunil Dogra and IK. EPIDEMIOLOGICALCHARACTERISTICS OF LEPROSY RECTIONS; 15 YEAR EXPERIENCE FROM NORTH INDIA. 2004.
22. Worobec SM. Treatment of leprosy/Hansen’s disease in the early 21st century. Dermatol Ther. 2009;22(6):518–37.
23. Eichelmann K, González González SE, Salas-Alanis JC, Ocampo-Candiani J. Leprosy. An Update: Definition, Pathogenesis, Classification, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas (English Ed [Internet]. 2013;104(7):554–63. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adengl.2012.03.028
24. Chen X, Liu HB, Shui TJ, Zha S. Risk factors for physical disability in patients with leprosy disease in yunnan, china: Evidence from a retrospective observational study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis [Internet]. 2021;15(11):1–14. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009923
25. van Beers SM, Hatta M, Klatser PR. Patient contact is the major determinant in incident leprosy: implications for future control. Int J Lepr other Mycobact Dis Off organ Int Lepr Assoc. 1999 Jun;67(2):119–28.
26. Moet FJ, Pahan D, Schuring RP, Oskam L, Richardus JH. Physical distance, genetic relationship, age, and leprosy classification are independent risk factors for leprosy in contacts of patients with leprosy. J Infect Dis. 2006;193(3):346–53.
27. Truman RW, Singh P, Sharma R, Busso P, Rougemont J, Paniz-Mondolfi A, et al. Probable Zoonotic Leprosy in the Southern United States. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(17):1626–33.
28. Mira MT, Alcaïs A, Van Thuc H, Moraes MO, Di Flumeri C, Thai VI, et al. Susceptibility to leprosy is associated with PARK2 and PACRG. Nature. 2004;427(6975):636–40.
29. HABIBALLA AHMED MM, ANURADHA, WADHWA P. a Review on Agents for the Treatment of Leprosy Infection. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2021;14(3):25–9.
30. Sarode G, Sarode S, Anand R, Patil S, Jafer M, Baeshen H, et al. Epidemiological aspects of leprosy. Disease-a-Month. 2020;66(7).
31. Rook GAW, Hamelmann E, Rosa Brunet L. Mycobacteria and allergies. Immunobiology. 2007;212(6):461–73.
32. Rodrigues LC, Lockwood DNJ. Leprosy now: Epidemiology, progress, challenges, and research gaps. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011;11(6):464–70.
33. Ren YR, Pan F, Parvez S, Fleig A, Chong CR, Xu J, et al. Clofazimine inhibits human Kv1.3 potassium channel by perturbing calcium oscillation in T lymphocytes. PLoS One. 2008;3(12).
34. S.K. Gupta D.K. Aswal Ajay Singh Shahswati Sen MKCSVGLG. Article in Press Article in Press. Eff grain boundaries paraconductivity YBCO. 2002;1(1):1–11.
35. Scollard DM. Chemotherapy of leprosy has changed (almost) everything. Lepr Rev 833 245-247. 2012;3(August):32.
36. Silva EA, Iyer A, Ura S, Lauris JR, Naafs B, Das PK, et al. Utility of measuring serum levels of anti-PGL-I antibody, neopterin and C-reactive protein in monitoring leprosy patients during multi-drug treatment and reactions. Trop Med Int Heal. 2007;12(12):1450–8.
37. Brennan PJ. Skin test development in leprosy: progress with first-generation skin test antigens, and an approach to the second generation. Lepr Rev. 2000 Dec;71 Suppl:S50-4.
38. Gillis T, Vissa V, Matsuoka M, Young S, Richardus JH, Truman R, et al. Characterisation of short tandem repeats for genotyping Mycobacterium leprae. Lepr Rev. 2009 Sep;80(3):250–60.
39. Mitra DK, Joshi B, Dinda AK, Rai AK, Girdhar BK, Katoch K, et al. Induction of lepromin reactivity in cured lepromatous leprosy patients: impaired chemokine response dissociates protective immunity from delayed type hypersensitivity. Microbes Infect [Internet]. 2009;11(14–15):1122–30. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2009.08.006
40. Han XY, Sizer KC, Thompson EJ, Kabanja J, Li J, Hu P, et al. Comparative sequence analysis of Mycobacterium leprae and the new leprosy-causing Mycobacterium lepromatosis. J Bacteriol. 2009;191(19):6067–74.
41. Kaplan BYG, Laal S, Sheftel G, Nusrat A, Nath I, Mathur NK, et al. THE NATURE AND KINETICS OF A DELAYED IMMUNE RESPONSE TO PURIFIED PROTEIN DERIVATIVE OF TUBERCULIN IN THE SKIN OF LEPROMATOUS LEPROSY PATIENTS Leprosy is a chronic granulomatous disease of man caused by the intracellular from single paucibacillary lesions . 1988;168(November).
42. Bührer SS, Smits HL, Gussenhoven GC, van Ingen CW, Klatser PR. A simple dipstick assay for the detection of antibodies to phenolic glycolipid-I of Mycobacterium leprae. Am J Trop Med Hyg [Internet]. 1998;58(2):133–6. Available from: https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/58/2/article-p133.xml
43. Oskam L, Slim E, Bührer-Sékula S. Serology: recent developments, strengths, limitations and prospects: a state of the art overview. Vol. 74, Leprosy review. England; 2003. p. 196–205.
44. Douglas JT, Celona R V, Abalos RM, Madarang MG, Fajardo T. Serological reactivity and early detection of leprosy among contacts of lepromatous patients in Cebu, the Philippines. Int J Lepr other Mycobact Dis Off organ Int Lepr Assoc. 1987 Dec;55(4):718–21.
45. Ulrich M, Smith PG, Sampson C, Zuniga M, Centeno M, Garcia V, et al. IgM antibodies to native phenolic glycolipid-I in contacts of leprosy patients in Venezuela: epidemiological observations and a prospective study of the risk of leprosy. Int J Lepr other Mycobact Dis Off organ Int Lepr Assoc. 1991 Sep;59(3):405–15.
46. Chanteau S, Glaziou P, Plichart C, Luquiaud P, Plichart R, Faucher JF, et al. Low predictive value of PGL-I serology for the early diagnosis of leprosy in family contacts: results of a 10-year prospective field study in French Polynesia. Int J Lepr other Mycobact Dis Off organ Int Lepr Assoc. 1993 Dec;61(4):533–41.
47. Butlin CR, Soares D, Neupane KD, Failbus SS, Roche PW. IgM anti-phenolic glycolipid-I antibody measurements from skin-smear sites: correlation with venous antibody levels and the bacterial index. Int J Lepr other Mycobact Dis Off organ Int Lepr Assoc. 1997 Dec;65(4):465–8.
48. Aseffa A, Brennan P, Dockrell H, Gillis T, Hussain R, Oskam L, et al. Report on the first meeting of the IDEAL (Initiative for Diagnostic and Epidemiological Assays for Leprosy) consortium held at Armauer Hansen Research Institute, ALERT, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on 24-27 October 2004. Lepr Rev. 2005 Jun;76(2):147–59.
49. Dean DA, Davidson AL, Nikaido H. The role of ATP as the energy source for maltose transport in Escherichia coli. Res Microbiol. 1990;141(3):348–52.
50. Bhandari J, Awais M, Robbins BA, et al. Leprosy. [Updated 2022 Aug 29]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan- . Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559307/. 2023;559307.
51. Scollard DM, Chaduvula M V., Martinez A, Fowlkes N, Nath I, Stryjewska BM, et al. Increased CXC ligand 10 levels and gene expression in type 1 leprosy reactions. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2011;18(6):947–53.
52. Stefani MM, Guerra JG, Sousa ALM, Costa MB, Oliveira MLW, Martelli CT, et al. Potential plasma markers of type 1 and type 2 leprosy reactions: A preliminary report. BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:6–13.
53. Kar HK, Gupta R. Treatment of leprosy. Clin Dermatol [Internet]. 2015;33(1):55–65. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2014.07.007
54. Narang T, Arshdeep, Dogra S. Minocycline in leprosy patients with recent onset clinical nerve function impairment. Dermatol Ther. 2017;30(1):1–4.
55. Patro BK, Madhanraj K, Singh A. Is leprosy Elimination a conceptual illusion. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2011;77(5):549–51.
56. Mungroo MR, Khan NA, Siddiqui R. Mycobacterium leprae: Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment options. Microb Pathog [Internet]. 2020;149(September):104475. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104475
57. Zhao_et_al. Supplementary Materials for Supplementary Materials : Science (80- ). 2016;3:1–5.
58. Rao PN. Leprosy: The challenges ahead for India. J Ski Sex Transm Dis. 2021;3(2):106–10.
59. Lockwood DN, Saunderson PR. Nerve damage in leprosy: A continuing challenge to scientists, clinicians and service providers. Int Health. 2012;4(2):77–85.
60. Lockwood DNJ, Kumar B. Treatment of leprosy. Br Med J. 2004;328(7454):1447–8.
61. Lini N, Shankernarayan NP, Dharmalingam K. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis of Mycobacterium leprae DNA and mRNA in human biopsy material from leprosy and reactional cases. J Med Microbiol. 2009;58(6):753–9.
62. Nery JA da C, Machado AM, Bernardes Filho F, Oliveira S de SC, Quintanilha J, Sales AM. Compreender melhor o estado reacional tipo 1 para o diagnóstico e tratamento precoces: Uma forma de se evitar as incapacidades na hanseníase. An Bras Dermatol. 2013;88(5):787–92.
63. VP G. Treatment of leprosy in India.
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65. Noordeen SK. Leprosy control through multidrug therapy (MDT). Bull World Health Organ. 1991;69(3):263–9.
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15/10/2023
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Srivastav, Y., Prajapati, A., Jaiswal, A., Yadav, S., Prajapati, A., & Madhaw, K. (2023). Overview of leprosy, including the diagnosis and current available treatments. Journal of Innovations in Applied Pharmaceutical Science (JIAPS), 8(3), 24-33. https://doi.org/10.37022/jiaps.v8i3.495
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